Polyandry was absent in the Sangam Era. But later it became popular among many non-Brahmin communities of southern India. There is no clear evidence about how and when polyandry became popular among these communities. I am not at all interested in writing about the personal matters of other castes. But because some people claimed without any proofs that my own caste was too polyandrous in ancient times, I decided refer the books based on the history of Kerala and and write a blog about this topic. There are mixed opinions about polyandry of Nair community. It might be because Nair is a group of castes. Today, there is a new misconception that Sambandham was a polyandrous marriage.
Some people, especially those who are staunch communists, argue that in ancient Kerala upper castes used to suppress the lower castes and that is why each and every person in those days had to take his/her traditional occupation for living. It was not so. In 'The Suma oriental of Tome Pires' it is mentioned that, "In Malabar a son cannot be more important than his father, the son has to follow his father's profession." Also, in those days the lifestyles of upper castes and lower castes were entirely different. For example, drinking alcohol was regarded as an anti-social matter among the upper castes.
In 'De aarde en hare bewoners, volgens de nieuwste ontdekkingen: een werk ter bevordering der kennis van landen en volken en van derzelver voortbrengsels en handel, Volume 16', written by Eberhardt August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in Dutch, published in the year 1824, it is stated that,
"De kinderen, welke uit deze veelmannerij voortkomen, erven met elkander gemeenschappelijk van alle mannen der moeder. Volgens sommige berigten, bepaalt zich deze veelmannerij der Malabaren niet tot de Caste der krijgslieden alleen, maar daar de Nairen insgelijks verscheidene lagere Casten, b. v. landbouwers, goudsmeden, en andere handwerkers hebben, strekt zich deze lagere klasfen uit. PENNANT beweert zelfs, dat de Nairen, de klasfe der krijgslieden namelijk, ieder der eene vrouw hebben. Hoe dit zij, deze Polyandrie strekt zich zeker niet verre uit."
Translation: The children, who come from this many times, inherit together from all the mother's men. According to some people, this malice of the Malabars is not confined to the Caste of warriors alone, but since the Nairs likewise several lower Castes, b. v. farmers, goldsmiths, and other craftsmen, extends these lower grades. PENNANT even claims that the Nairs, the class of warriors, each have a wife. Whatever this is, this polyandry certainly does not extend far."
In 'Handbuch der neuefien Erdbefcheeibung', written in German, published in the year 1822, the authors have mentioned that,
"Die höchfie Klass der Nairen find die Kirif oder Kirum Nairen, woraus ihre Fürsten und häupclinge absiammen, dann folgen die Sudra's, welche die Krieger ausmachen. Bei den 5 niedern klassen herrscht die Geowohnheit, dab eine Frau mehrere Männer nehmen fann, und es giebt Fälle, daß eine Frau 2, 3 und mehrere Bruder zu Männern hat, die aus diefen Ehen entspringenden Kinder erben das ganze Bermögen fämmtlicber Brüder."
Translation: The highest class of the Nairs are the Kirif or Kirum Nairs, from which their princes and chiefs descend, followed by the Sudra, which make up the warriors. In the 5 lower classes there is the prevalence that a woman fancies several men, and there are cases in which a woman has 2, 3, and several brothers as men, and the children who spring from these marriages inherit all the wealth of brothers.
Pyrard de Laval, who was is Malabar in 1607, gives a fuller and more accurate account. He says, however, that, the "Nairs may have one wife at the time," which is not correct, while a woman may have three husbands at once, "but a Nair woman of Brahmin race may have one only," which shows a certain confusion between the customs of the Nairs and the Nambudiri Brahmins.
Kerala was once a Buddhist region. Prakrit was the language of early Buddhism. Nāyara is the Prakrit word for Nāgara. The Mahabodhi Temple is situated in the banks of river Lilajan. This river is also known as Nairanjana which means 'the sea of snakes'. Some people claim that the word Nair actually came from the word Nāyaka, which means leader, but there is no proof for it.
In the pre-independence era, Nagavanshi Nairs or Kiriyathil and Illathu Nairs were known as 'Uyarnna Nayarmar' (उयर्न्न नायरमार, meaning: upper caste Nairs). Rest of the sub-castes were known as lower castes Nairs. These lower caste Nairs were migrants from the neighbouring presidencies and later assimilated to the original Nair community. Today they are called Non-Nagavanshi Nairs. Inter-marriage and inter-dinining was forbidden between and Nagavanshi Nairs and Non-Nagavanshi Nairs. Because the Nagavanshi Nairs never accepted Non-Nagavanshi Nairs as the members of their community. Even today, though all the castes socialize with each other inter-caste marriages are very rare. Because religious Hindus marry according to their caste rules only.
Nagavanshi Nair was once such a blessed community that all the families belonging to this community were very rich and wealthy. Men of this caste were known for their martial arts skills and in 4th century B.C. the fame of this caste reached Europe through the writings of Megasthenes. Both 'Kiriyam' and 'Illam' means house. Nagavanshi Nairs were cleanly and respectable people, residing in their own houses, on the banks of rice fields which they owned, and cultivated by the aid of the low caste labourers. Nagavanshi Nairs were careful to pay much respect to the aged relatives. Nephews never sat down in the presence of their uncles. When meeting Brahmins, they used to adore them by folding both hands and the Brahmins in return conferred their blessings by holding left hand to chest and closing the fingers. In 'Asiatic Journal, Volume 25', published in the year 1828, the author has stated that "Nair is a civilized and even polished caste of people."
Some historians are of the opinion that all Nair families used to practice non-fraternal polyandry in ancient times and one of the reasons for the non-fraternal polyandry may be connected with the military profession of the Nairs. There is no connection between military profession and polyandry. Nairs are Hindu by religion. There are lots of good advises for women in Hinduism. One of them is to remain pure and chaste until marriage and to sincerely love the husband after marriage. No Hindu law book supports polyandry. According to the information given by the historians, most of the polyandrous communities in ancient India were non-warrior communities. In none of the Hindu scriptures it is mentioned that Nagavanshis used to practice polyandry.
Nair Ballads and poetry contain many passages where polyandry is spoken as of a barbarous and unknown custom. The northern ballads, which is known as Vadakkanpattukal (वडक्कन्पाटुकळ्) in Malayalam, provide numerous instances of polygamous alliances. One of the famous Nair warrior Shri.Thacholi Othenan Kurup had several wives, the most prominent of them being Smt. Chathothu Cheeru, Smt. Karuthenidam Kunhikanni and Smt. Koomundamatam Kunhitheyi.
Dance (for women) and polyandry, both were forbidden in Kiriyathil and Illathu Nair castes. In the Census of the 1960s, members of Tamil Padam caste (which belongs to the Maravar community of Tamil Nadu) reported their caste as Kiriyathil Nair. Women of Tamil Padam caste were Devadasis and they used to work as dancers in Temples and Palaces before independence. As they began to pretend that they are Kiriyathil Nairs, people who knew very little about Nair community began to believe the Nagavanshi Nair women of previous generations were Devadasis. I have a huge respect for worship dances and devotional songs of Hinduism. But it is true that in Kiriyathil and Illathu Nair castes dance was forbidden for women. Only Kaikottikkali, which is performed on the day of Onam and Thiruvathira, was allowed for them. And they performed it in front of their family members only. Some Non-Nair castes later divided their caste into Kiriyam and Illam sub-divisions, which created another misconception that these castes are related to Nair community.
Edgar Thurston in his book 'Castes and Tribes of Southern India', published in the year 1909, has stated as follows, "I have not known an admitted instance of polyandry amongst the Nairs of Malabar at the present day, but there is no doubt that, if it does not exist now (and I think it does here and there), it certainly did not long ago." About his travels in Kerala, Swami Vivekanada said on July 15, 1895 at the Thousand Island Park: "In Malabar, although of course polyandry does not obtain there, women lead in everything. Exceptional cleanliness is apparent everywhere and there is the greatest impetus to learning. When I myself was in that country, I met many women who spoke good Sanskrit, while in the rest of India not one in a million can speak it. Mastery elevates and servitude debases. Malabar has never been conquered either by Portuguese, or by Mussalamans."
Shri. K. M.Panikkar
Except the Nambuthiri or Malayali Brahmin, the Nagavanshi Nairs had no other priestly, spiritual or religious instructor. Kettukalyanam or mock marriage was a ritual conducted for Nair girls below the age of ten. This ritual was conducted so that the Nair girl can add the word 'Amma' with her name. That is, after Kettukalyanam or mock-marriage ritual, a Nair girl was allowed to add 'Amma' as a suffix with her name. Sambandham was the principal Malayalam word for marriage as Vivaham is in Sanskrit. Its synonyms are Pudamuri and Vasthradaanam. In Nair Sambandhams, the bridegroom was a man of a real Brahmin caste or a Hindu Royal Familiy or a man of an equal or a higher Nair caste. But if the bridegroom is a Brahmin, he can't eat with his Shudra wife and therefore he was unable to join in the wedding feast (Sadya). Divorces were almost unheard of, or were extremely rare. In most cases the Sambandham lasted for life. Re-marriage was allowed in Nagavanshi Nair community but polyandry was strictly forbidden. According to the Mahabharata, Princess Ulupi was the widowed daughter of the Nagavanshi King Kauravya. She was given in marriage by her father to the Prince Arjuna.
Nair women were never engaged as laborers. They had no role in the collection of fuel. They had to fetch water for their family. They were solely responsible for the entire domestic chores, including cooking and serving food, rearing children etc. A Nair woman offending against the law of their sect (caste) was sold to Moors and Christians if the King knows it before her male relatives. If the male relatives knew it before the King, they shut her up and killed her with a dagger or spear, saying that, if they do not do so, they would remain greatly dishonoured. And the King used to hold this to be well done."
When I searched about polyandry in other castes, I got some details from some books based on the history of Kerala. Before reading that, you should keep in mind that all these details are of the period before the reformation of Kerala which were made by the Hindu spiritual leaders. In 19th century, Thiyyas and Ezhavas were known as "Teer, Teyar, Tiar, Eeyoover and Juver." They were a caste of toddy-tappers. The women of this caste were polyandous and admitted all comers. In those days they were treated as unclean and were compelled to move from the road when a person of upper caste approached. In Malabar Marriage Commision of 1894, it is stated that, "In early days of British rule the Tiyan women incurred no social disgrace by consorting with Europeans."
The marriage ties of the Pulaya and Paraya caste in the pre-independence era are described as loose. In these castes, divorce was common, remarriage of widows was permitted, both polyandry and polygyny existed. The Panan caste is known for its striking devil dances and they followed fraternal polyandry.
The artisan castes used to practice fraternal polyandry. Kammalan is one the artisan caste of southern India. When one of the authors of the book 'New Scientist', published in the 1962, asked some Kammalars that why they followed polyandry, he got the same reply which he received from the Toda community. They said, "If there is only one wife there are no quarrels in which women of the drag the men." But Shri. A. Ayyappan in his book 'The personality of Kerala' has written that, "I have come across instances of friction between Ezhava brothers having a common wife and used them as an argument against Russel's view that human sexual jealousy can be fully controlled." Soundikolpatti' is a book written by some Ezhavas of south Malabar in puranic Indian style. This book says about seven brothers who were polyandrous and are the ancestors of Ezhavas.
Kaniyar was a caste of fortune tellers and umbrella makers. Later it became a caste of astrologers. In ancient times, Panans, Velans and the Kaniyans used to practice magic, probably an inheritance of their ancestors, but astrology was the profession of Brahmins only. Perhaps, after social reformation Kaniyars may have learned astrology from the Brahmins. Kaniyar too was once a polyandrous caste. In the Cochin Castes and Tribes, written by Shri. L. Anantha Krishna Iyer, published in the year 1909, it is stated that, "Among the Kaniyans as well as the Panikkans polyandry largely prevails. The Kaniyans explain their custom of practising polyandry by saying that their caste-men are very poor, and cannot afford the expenses of the large families that there might be, if the brothers married different women and had separate families. The brothers cannot afford to live together for a long time, for they very often go from place to place to earn their livelihood by astrology. Each brother is at home only for few days in each month. If several of them happen to be at home together for a weeks, each in turn associates with the woman in accordance with the directions given by their mother."
Reference: Swami Vivekananda in India: A Corrective Biography by Shri. Rajagopal Chattopadhyaya, Matrilineal Kinship edited by David Murray Schnieder, Kathleen Gough, Native life in Travancore by Samuel Mateer, Conflict and Culture: Sociological Essays by Shri. Thulaseedharan, Hindu-Muslim Relations in North Malabar, 1498-1947 by Theodore P. C. Gabriel, Social and Physical Anthropology of the Nayadis of Malabar by Shri. A. Ayyappan, Iravas and Culture Change by Shri. A. Ayyappan, Book: Maharashtra, Part 3. Author: B. V. Bhanu, Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 2 by Edward Balfour, Malabar Marriage Commision 1894, 'Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice' written by Monica Bock and Aparna Rao, Asian Folklore Studies, Volumes 34-36, India: an anthropological perspective by Stephen A. Tyler, Studies in Traditional Kerala Society by K. Thulaseedharan, Census of India, 1931, The Development of Democracy in India by K. Rajeswara Row, 1924, Buddhism in Indian Literature by Narendra Kumar Dash, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas edited by Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri.
Some people, especially those who are staunch communists, argue that in ancient Kerala upper castes used to suppress the lower castes and that is why each and every person in those days had to take his/her traditional occupation for living. It was not so. In 'The Suma oriental of Tome Pires' it is mentioned that, "In Malabar a son cannot be more important than his father, the son has to follow his father's profession." Also, in those days the lifestyles of upper castes and lower castes were entirely different. For example, drinking alcohol was regarded as an anti-social matter among the upper castes.
In 'De aarde en hare bewoners, volgens de nieuwste ontdekkingen: een werk ter bevordering der kennis van landen en volken en van derzelver voortbrengsels en handel, Volume 16', written by Eberhardt August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in Dutch, published in the year 1824, it is stated that,
"De kinderen, welke uit deze veelmannerij voortkomen, erven met elkander gemeenschappelijk van alle mannen der moeder. Volgens sommige berigten, bepaalt zich deze veelmannerij der Malabaren niet tot de Caste der krijgslieden alleen, maar daar de Nairen insgelijks verscheidene lagere Casten, b. v. landbouwers, goudsmeden, en andere handwerkers hebben, strekt zich deze lagere klasfen uit. PENNANT beweert zelfs, dat de Nairen, de klasfe der krijgslieden namelijk, ieder der eene vrouw hebben. Hoe dit zij, deze Polyandrie strekt zich zeker niet verre uit."
Translation: The children, who come from this many times, inherit together from all the mother's men. According to some people, this malice of the Malabars is not confined to the Caste of warriors alone, but since the Nairs likewise several lower Castes, b. v. farmers, goldsmiths, and other craftsmen, extends these lower grades. PENNANT even claims that the Nairs, the class of warriors, each have a wife. Whatever this is, this polyandry certainly does not extend far."
In 'Handbuch der neuefien Erdbefcheeibung', written in German, published in the year 1822, the authors have mentioned that,
"Die höchfie Klass der Nairen find die Kirif oder Kirum Nairen, woraus ihre Fürsten und häupclinge absiammen, dann folgen die Sudra's, welche die Krieger ausmachen. Bei den 5 niedern klassen herrscht die Geowohnheit, dab eine Frau mehrere Männer nehmen fann, und es giebt Fälle, daß eine Frau 2, 3 und mehrere Bruder zu Männern hat, die aus diefen Ehen entspringenden Kinder erben das ganze Bermögen fämmtlicber Brüder."
Translation: The highest class of the Nairs are the Kirif or Kirum Nairs, from which their princes and chiefs descend, followed by the Sudra, which make up the warriors. In the 5 lower classes there is the prevalence that a woman fancies several men, and there are cases in which a woman has 2, 3, and several brothers as men, and the children who spring from these marriages inherit all the wealth of brothers.
Pyrard de Laval, who was is Malabar in 1607, gives a fuller and more accurate account. He says, however, that, the "Nairs may have one wife at the time," which is not correct, while a woman may have three husbands at once, "but a Nair woman of Brahmin race may have one only," which shows a certain confusion between the customs of the Nairs and the Nambudiri Brahmins.
Kerala was once a Buddhist region. Prakrit was the language of early Buddhism. Nāyara is the Prakrit word for Nāgara. The Mahabodhi Temple is situated in the banks of river Lilajan. This river is also known as Nairanjana which means 'the sea of snakes'. Some people claim that the word Nair actually came from the word Nāyaka, which means leader, but there is no proof for it.
In the pre-independence era, Nagavanshi Nairs or Kiriyathil and Illathu Nairs were known as 'Uyarnna Nayarmar' (उयर्न्न नायरमार, meaning: upper caste Nairs). Rest of the sub-castes were known as lower castes Nairs. These lower caste Nairs were migrants from the neighbouring presidencies and later assimilated to the original Nair community. Today they are called Non-Nagavanshi Nairs. Inter-marriage and inter-dinining was forbidden between and Nagavanshi Nairs and Non-Nagavanshi Nairs. Because the Nagavanshi Nairs never accepted Non-Nagavanshi Nairs as the members of their community. Even today, though all the castes socialize with each other inter-caste marriages are very rare. Because religious Hindus marry according to their caste rules only.
Nagavanshi Nair was once such a blessed community that all the families belonging to this community were very rich and wealthy. Men of this caste were known for their martial arts skills and in 4th century B.C. the fame of this caste reached Europe through the writings of Megasthenes. Both 'Kiriyam' and 'Illam' means house. Nagavanshi Nairs were cleanly and respectable people, residing in their own houses, on the banks of rice fields which they owned, and cultivated by the aid of the low caste labourers. Nagavanshi Nairs were careful to pay much respect to the aged relatives. Nephews never sat down in the presence of their uncles. When meeting Brahmins, they used to adore them by folding both hands and the Brahmins in return conferred their blessings by holding left hand to chest and closing the fingers. In 'Asiatic Journal, Volume 25', published in the year 1828, the author has stated that "Nair is a civilized and even polished caste of people."
Some historians are of the opinion that all Nair families used to practice non-fraternal polyandry in ancient times and one of the reasons for the non-fraternal polyandry may be connected with the military profession of the Nairs. There is no connection between military profession and polyandry. Nairs are Hindu by religion. There are lots of good advises for women in Hinduism. One of them is to remain pure and chaste until marriage and to sincerely love the husband after marriage. No Hindu law book supports polyandry. According to the information given by the historians, most of the polyandrous communities in ancient India were non-warrior communities. In none of the Hindu scriptures it is mentioned that Nagavanshis used to practice polyandry.
Nair Ballads and poetry contain many passages where polyandry is spoken as of a barbarous and unknown custom. The northern ballads, which is known as Vadakkanpattukal (वडक्कन्पाटुकळ्) in Malayalam, provide numerous instances of polygamous alliances. One of the famous Nair warrior Shri.Thacholi Othenan Kurup had several wives, the most prominent of them being Smt. Chathothu Cheeru, Smt. Karuthenidam Kunhikanni and Smt. Koomundamatam Kunhitheyi.
Dance (for women) and polyandry, both were forbidden in Kiriyathil and Illathu Nair castes. In the Census of the 1960s, members of Tamil Padam caste (which belongs to the Maravar community of Tamil Nadu) reported their caste as Kiriyathil Nair. Women of Tamil Padam caste were Devadasis and they used to work as dancers in Temples and Palaces before independence. As they began to pretend that they are Kiriyathil Nairs, people who knew very little about Nair community began to believe the Nagavanshi Nair women of previous generations were Devadasis. I have a huge respect for worship dances and devotional songs of Hinduism. But it is true that in Kiriyathil and Illathu Nair castes dance was forbidden for women. Only Kaikottikkali, which is performed on the day of Onam and Thiruvathira, was allowed for them. And they performed it in front of their family members only. Some Non-Nair castes later divided their caste into Kiriyam and Illam sub-divisions, which created another misconception that these castes are related to Nair community.
Edgar Thurston in his book 'Castes and Tribes of Southern India', published in the year 1909, has stated as follows, "I have not known an admitted instance of polyandry amongst the Nairs of Malabar at the present day, but there is no doubt that, if it does not exist now (and I think it does here and there), it certainly did not long ago." About his travels in Kerala, Swami Vivekanada said on July 15, 1895 at the Thousand Island Park: "In Malabar, although of course polyandry does not obtain there, women lead in everything. Exceptional cleanliness is apparent everywhere and there is the greatest impetus to learning. When I myself was in that country, I met many women who spoke good Sanskrit, while in the rest of India not one in a million can speak it. Mastery elevates and servitude debases. Malabar has never been conquered either by Portuguese, or by Mussalamans."
Shri. K. M.
Except the Nambuthiri or Malayali Brahmin, the Nagavanshi Nairs had no other priestly, spiritual or religious instructor. Kettukalyanam or mock marriage was a ritual conducted for Nair girls below the age of ten. This ritual was conducted so that the Nair girl can add the word 'Amma' with her name. That is, after Kettukalyanam or mock-marriage ritual, a Nair girl was allowed to add 'Amma' as a suffix with her name. Sambandham was the principal Malayalam word for marriage as Vivaham is in Sanskrit. Its synonyms are Pudamuri and Vasthradaanam. In Nair Sambandhams, the bridegroom was a man of a real Brahmin caste or a Hindu Royal Familiy or a man of an equal or a higher Nair caste. But if the bridegroom is a Brahmin, he can't eat with his Shudra wife and therefore he was unable to join in the wedding feast (Sadya). Divorces were almost unheard of, or were extremely rare. In most cases the Sambandham lasted for life. Re-marriage was allowed in Nagavanshi Nair community but polyandry was strictly forbidden. According to the Mahabharata, Princess Ulupi was the widowed daughter of the Nagavanshi King Kauravya. She was given in marriage by her father to the Prince Arjuna.
Nair women were never engaged as laborers. They had no role in the collection of fuel. They had to fetch water for their family. They were solely responsible for the entire domestic chores, including cooking and serving food, rearing children etc. A Nair woman offending against the law of their sect (caste) was sold to Moors and Christians if the King knows it before her male relatives. If the male relatives knew it before the King, they shut her up and killed her with a dagger or spear, saying that, if they do not do so, they would remain greatly dishonoured. And the King used to hold this to be well done."
When I searched about polyandry in other castes, I got some details from some books based on the history of Kerala. Before reading that, you should keep in mind that all these details are of the period before the reformation of Kerala which were made by the Hindu spiritual leaders. In 19th century, Thiyyas and Ezhavas were known as "Teer, Teyar, Tiar, Eeyoover and Juver." They were a caste of toddy-tappers. The women of this caste were polyandous and admitted all comers. In those days they were treated as unclean and were compelled to move from the road when a person of upper caste approached. In Malabar Marriage Commision of 1894, it is stated that, "In early days of British rule the Tiyan women incurred no social disgrace by consorting with Europeans."
The marriage ties of the Pulaya and Paraya caste in the pre-independence era are described as loose. In these castes, divorce was common, remarriage of widows was permitted, both polyandry and polygyny existed. The Panan caste is known for its striking devil dances and they followed fraternal polyandry.
The artisan castes used to practice fraternal polyandry. Kammalan is one the artisan caste of southern India. When one of the authors of the book 'New Scientist', published in the 1962, asked some Kammalars that why they followed polyandry, he got the same reply which he received from the Toda community. They said, "If there is only one wife there are no quarrels in which women of the drag the men." But Shri. A. Ayyappan in his book 'The personality of Kerala' has written that, "I have come across instances of friction between Ezhava brothers having a common wife and used them as an argument against Russel's view that human sexual jealousy can be fully controlled." Soundikolpatti' is a book written by some Ezhavas of south Malabar in puranic Indian style. This book says about seven brothers who were polyandrous and are the ancestors of Ezhavas.
Kaniyar was a caste of fortune tellers and umbrella makers. Later it became a caste of astrologers. In ancient times, Panans, Velans and the Kaniyans used to practice magic, probably an inheritance of their ancestors, but astrology was the profession of Brahmins only. Perhaps, after social reformation Kaniyars may have learned astrology from the Brahmins. Kaniyar too was once a polyandrous caste. In the Cochin Castes and Tribes, written by Shri. L. Anantha Krishna Iyer, published in the year 1909, it is stated that, "Among the Kaniyans as well as the Panikkans polyandry largely prevails. The Kaniyans explain their custom of practising polyandry by saying that their caste-men are very poor, and cannot afford the expenses of the large families that there might be, if the brothers married different women and had separate families. The brothers cannot afford to live together for a long time, for they very often go from place to place to earn their livelihood by astrology. Each brother is at home only for few days in each month. If several of them happen to be at home together for a weeks, each in turn associates with the woman in accordance with the directions given by their mother."
Reference: Swami Vivekananda in India: A Corrective Biography by Shri. Rajagopal Chattopadhyaya, Matrilineal Kinship edited by David Murray Schnieder, Kathleen Gough, Native life in Travancore by Samuel Mateer, Conflict and Culture: Sociological Essays by Shri. Thulaseedharan, Hindu-Muslim Relations in North Malabar, 1498-1947 by Theodore P. C. Gabriel, Social and Physical Anthropology of the Nayadis of Malabar by Shri. A. Ayyappan, Iravas and Culture Change by Shri. A. Ayyappan, Book: Maharashtra, Part 3. Author: B. V. Bhanu, Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 2 by Edward Balfour, Malabar Marriage Commision 1894, 'Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice' written by Monica Bock and Aparna Rao, Asian Folklore Studies, Volumes 34-36, India: an anthropological perspective by Stephen A. Tyler, Studies in Traditional Kerala Society by K. Thulaseedharan, Census of India, 1931, The Development of Democracy in India by K. Rajeswara Row, 1924, Buddhism in Indian Literature by Narendra Kumar Dash, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas edited by Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri.
